试评述托尔曼的符号学习理论。
托尔曼的符号学习理论的主要观点包括以下两个观点:
(1)学习是有目的的,是期望的获得。学习的目的性是人类学习区别于动物学习的主要标志。期望是个体依据已有经验建立的一种内部准备状态,是通过学习而形成的关于目标的认识和期待。期望是托尔曼学习理论的核心概念。
(2)学习是对完形的认知,是形成认知地图的过程。
对符号学习理论的评价:
①优点:托尔曼的符号学习理论把认知主义的观点引进行为主义的学习理论,改变了联结派学习理论把学习看成是盲目的、机械的过程的观点。他重视学习的中介过程,强调学习的认知性和目的性,这些思想对现代认知学习理论的产生和发展起到了深远的影响。②不足:托尔曼的学习理论严格地说是动物学习的理论,在解释学生的课堂学习上还存在一定的距离。此外,这一理论中有许多概念没有予以明确的定义,许多学习问题也未能得到解答。
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根据以下材料,回答题
If you don′t think a phone is the rightgift for a lover, the smart choice this year is a smart phone.
For people who don′t read instructions
The easiest-to-use phone is the iPhone. It′sthat has pushed it to the No.1 selling position, surpassing the Motorola Razr.The iPhone′s touch screen is easy to operate and it′s also easy to customize (用户化). The iPhone can run allsorts of applications such as those help you to lose weight, identify a song onthe radio, find a restaurant or do many other things.
For the futurist
The T-Mobile G1 is very popular as it is thefirst phone to offer a Google browser, meaning that you′re getting the real webon your phone, but it′s the phone′s potential that qualifies it for the futurist.The exciting applications are interesting, but they don′t always work smoothly.Sometimes it is hard to use the applications it comes with. The system shouldimprove as it becomes more popular, so it holds great promise. With fewrestrictions on the design of applications for the phone,
the G1 could be the first phone toincorporate (整合) some of the coolest.
For the road warrior
The new BlackBerry Storm is something likethe equivalent (等同物) of a mullet--a business up front, party in the back. It stillincorporates the serious mail and organization features that have endeared (使受钟爱) these phones to business people. The 3.25-inch is bright anddetailed and it′s a decent size for watching videos on the go.
For the Luddite (反对技术进步的人)
For those who can′t handle buttons and newfeatures, there is the Samsung Jitterbug Dial. Some people are Luddites whojust want a few large buttons to make calls. That′s it, just calls. That makesit even easier to use an iPhone.
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